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Flannel runs a small, single binary agent called flanneld on each host, and is responsible for allocating a subnet lease to each host out of a larger, preconfigured address space. Flannel uses either the Kubernetes API or etcd directly to store the network configuration, the allocated subnets, and any auxiliary data (such as the host's public IP). Packets are forwarded using one of several backend mechanisms including VXLAN and various cloud integrations. Platforms like Kubernetes assume that each container (pod) has a unique, routable IP inside the cluster. ...

netstack is a userspace TCP/IP networking stack written in Go that implements core IPv4/IPv6 protocols with a focus on correctness, isolation, and testability. By running entirely in user space, it avoids kernel dependencies and can be embedded into sandboxes, virtualized environments, or custom appliances. Its architecture models NICs, link endpoints, route tables, and protocol engines as composable interfaces, enabling precise control over packet flow and easy mocking in tests. The stack implements TCP, UDP, ICMP, neighbor discovery, and common socket behaviors, including options like MSS/MTU handling and congestion control hooks. ...